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External WebsitesProfessor of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Author of Minerals and Rocks; coauthor of Manual of Mineralogy.
Cornelis Klein Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaEncyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
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Electrical forces are responsible for the chemical bonding of atoms, ions, and ionic groups that constitute crystalline solids. The physical and chemical properties of minerals are attributable for the most part to the types and strengths of these binding forces; hardness, cleavage, fusibility, electrical and thermal conductivity, and the coefficient of thermal expansion are examples of such properties. On the whole, the hardness and melting point of a crystal increase proportionally with the strength of the bond, while its coefficient of thermal expansion decreases. The extremely strong forces that link the carbon atoms of diamond, for instance, are responsible for its distinct hardness. Periclase (MgO) and halite (NaCl) have similar structures; however, periclase has a melting point of 2,800 °C (5,072 °F) whereas halite melts at 801 °C (1,474 °F). This discrepancy reflects the difference in the bond strength of the two minerals: since the atoms of periclase are joined by a stronger electrical force, a greater amount of heat is needed to separate them.
The electrical forces, called chemical bonds, can be divided into five types: ionic, covalent, metallic, van der Waals, and hydrogen bonds. Classification in this manner is largely one of expediency; the chemical bonds in a given mineral may in fact possess characteristics of more than one bond type. For example, the forces that link the silicon and oxygen atoms in quartz exhibit in nearly equal amount the characteristics of both ionic and covalent bonds. As stated above, the electrical interaction between the atoms of a crystal determine its physical and chemical properties. Thus, classifying minerals according to their electrical forces will cause those species with similar properties to be grouped together. This fact justifies classification by bond type.
Atoms have a tendency to gain or lose electrons so that their outer orbitals become stable; this is normally accomplished by these orbitals being filled with the maximum allowed number of valence electrons. Metallic sodium, for example, has one valence electron in its outer orbital; it becomes ionized by readily losing this electron and exists as the cation Na + . Conversely, chlorine gains an electron to complete its outer orbital, thereby forming the anion Cl − . In the mineral halite, NaCl (common, or rock, salt), the chemical bonding that holds the Na + and Cl − ions together is the attraction between the two opposite charges. This bonding mechanism is referred to as ionic, or electrovalent (see also ionic bond).
Ionically bonded crystals typically display moderate hardness and specific gravity, rather high melting points, and poor thermal and electrical conductivity. The electrostatic charge of an ion is evenly distributed over its surface, and so a cation tends to become surrounded with the maximum number of anions that can be arranged around it. Since ionic bonding is nondirectional, crystals bonded in this manner normally display high symmetry.
In the discussion of the ionic bond, it was noted that chlorine readily gains an electron to achieve a stable electron configuration. An incomplete outer orbital places a chlorine atom in a highly reactive state, so it attempts to combine with nearly any atom in its proximity. Because its closest neighbour is usually another chlorine atom, the two may bond together by sharing one pair of electrons. As a result of this extremely strong bond, each chlorine atom enters a stable state.
The electron-sharing, or covalent, bond is the strongest of all chemical bond types. Minerals bonded in this manner display general insolubility, great stability, and a high melting point. Crystals of covalently bonded minerals tend to exhibit lower symmetry than their ionic counterparts because the covalent bond is highly directional, localized in the vicinity of the shared electrons.
The Cl2 molecules formed by linking two neighbouring chlorine atoms are stable and do not combine with other molecules. Atoms of some elements, however, have more than one electron in the outer orbital and thus may bond to several neighbouring atoms to form groups, which in turn may join together in larger combinations. Carbon, in the polymorphic form of diamond, is a good example of this type of covalent bonding. There are four valence electrons in a carbon atom, so that each atom bonds with four others in a stable tetrahedral configuration. A continuous network is formed by the linkage of every carbon atom in this manner. The rigid diamond structure results from the strong localization of the bond energy in the vicinity of the shared electrons; this makes diamond the hardest of all natural substances. Diamond does not conduct electricity, because all the valence electrons of its constituent atoms are shared to form bonds and therefore are not mobile.
Bonding in metals is distinct from that in their salts, as reflected in the significant differences between the properties of the two groups. In contrast to salts, metals display high plasticity, tenacity, ductility, and conductivity. Many are characterized by lower hardness and have higher melting and boiling points than, for example, covalently bonded materials. All these properties result from a metallic bonding mechanism that can be envisioned as a collection of positively charged ions immersed in a cloud of valence electrons. The attraction between the cations and the electrons holds a crystal together. The electrons are not bound to any particular cation and are thus free to move throughout the structure. In fact, in the metals sodium, cesium, rubidium, and potassium, the radiant energy of light can cause electrons to be removed from their surfaces entirely. (This result is known as the photoelectric effect.) Electron mobility is responsible for the ability of metals to conduct heat and electricity. The native metals are the only minerals to exhibit pure metallic bonding.
Neutral molecules may be held together by a weak electric force known as the van der Waals bond. It results from the distortion of a molecule so that a small positive charge develops on one end and a corresponding negative charge develops on the other. A similar effect is induced in neighbouring molecules, and this dipole effect propagates throughout the entire structure. An attractive force is then formed between oppositely charged ends of the dipoles. Van der Waals bonding is common in gases and organic liquids and solids, but it is rare in minerals. Its presence in a mineral defines a weak area with good cleavage and low hardness. In graphite, carbon atoms lie in covalently bonded sheets with van der Waals forces acting between the layers.
In addition to the four major bond types described above, there is an interaction called hydrogen bonding. This takes place when a hydrogen atom, bonded to an electronegative atom such as oxygen, fluorine, or nitrogen, is also attracted to the negative end of a neighbouring molecule. A strong dipole-dipole interaction is produced, forming a bond between the two molecules. Hydrogen bonding is common in hydroxides and in many of the layer silicates—e.g., micas and clay minerals.
The physical properties of minerals are the direct result of the structural and chemical characteristics of the minerals. Some properties can be determined by inspection of a hand specimen or by relatively simple tests on such a specimen. Others, such as those determined by optical and X-ray diffraction techniques, require special and often sophisticated equipment and may involve elaborate sample preparation. In the discussion that follows, emphasis is placed on those properties that can be most easily evaluated with only simple tests.
